Pakistan and Water Security: Emerging Challenges for Public Health, National Security, and Regional Cooperation

Water has been the backbone of Pakistan’s civilization, economy, and food security for centuries. The Indus River that originates in the Himalayas, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush mountains is the lifeline of Pakistan and provides water to over 240 million people and one of the largest contiguous irrigation systems in the world. Irrigated agriculture dominates Pakistan’s economy and is the primary source of food, fiber, and rural employment in the country.

Today, Pakistanis are facing a more complex water challenge than ever before. Water scarcity, poor water quality, population growth, urbanization, climate change, aging infrastructure, and geopolitical tensions are some of the key factors that make water a matter of national security and public health.

Indus Basin: Pakistan’s Water Tower

The river and its five major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas, provide water for agricultural production, municipal and industrial use, hydropower generation, and freshwater habitats. The Indus River Basin provides water for producing Pakistan’s wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, fruits, and vegetables for domestic consumption and export.

In addition to agriculture, the Indus River provides water for drinking, hydropower, and freshwater habitats. Despite being Pakistan’s most significant freshwater resource, the Indus River’s renewable freshwater supply per capita has dropped by several folds since the 1950s due to insufficient storage development and growing demand.

Population Growth and Water Demand

Since independence, Pakistan’s population has more than doubled, while the growth rate of its water storage has lagged. As a result, the country’s freshwater supply per person has dropped significantly, nearing the international water scarcity level. About 90 percent of Pakistan’s freshwater is used for agriculture, but canal seepage and inefficient irrigation practices have wasted much of Pakistan’s water resources.

Moreover, urban center's water demand is growing as more people are gravitating towards cities and suburbs. Municipal water demand is also rising, which requires reliable water sources to meet the needs of Pakistan’s growing population, industry, and agriculture.

Water Pollution and Public Health

Water scarcity is compounded by water pollution from municipal sewage, industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and urban waste. Contaminated water from polluted rivers, canals, and tube wells is a significant risk factor for waterborne diseases and affects Pakistan’s public health. Diarrheal diseases, hepatitis, typhoid, cholera, and other waterborne illnesses are significant causes of morbidity and mortality in Pakistan.

Unsafe water and inadequate sanitation pose the most significant health risks, especially in rural areas. Rural dwellers depend on canal or ground water, which is often contaminated with pathogens and high salt concentrations. Improving drinking water sources and sanitation infrastructure is critical to reducing the health burden from waterborne diseases and improving public health.

Climate Change and Water Resources

Climate change is a significant threat to Pakistan’s water security. Pakistan’s glaciers and snow packs in the upper reaches of the Indus River are melting at an unprecedented rate due to rising temperatures, contributing to extreme weather events such as floods and droughts. Experts predict that climate change will cause highly variable river flows and jeopardize Pakistan’s water security.

In the future, Pakistan will have to invest in climate-informed water security, including early warning systems, improved water storage, and adaptive agricultural practices to build resilience to climate change.

Regional Water Cooperation

The waters of the Indus River have been a source of tension between Pakistan and India, as well as China and Afghanistan, for decades. The dispute over the waters of the Indus River between Pakistan and India was finally resolved through the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960. Since then, the dispute over the water has simmered down, with both countries managing to regulate their differences on the river issue.

However, with the new developments in Pakistan and India in 2025, the future of water cooperation in South Asia is now at risk. Despite engineering marvels, water cooperation requires a lasting institutional framework for effective dispute-resolution mechanisms and technical discussions.

Environmental Sustainability

River ecosystems play a critical role in Pakistan’s water security and sustainability. Reduced freshwater flows, water pollution, overexploitation, and poor habitat management have degraded Pakistan’s freshwater ecosystems and wetlands, threatening the livelihoods of millions of Pakistanis who depend on the river for food, income, and other ecosystem services. Similarly, the Indus Delta’s environmental flows and ecological integrity have suffered irreparable harm due to freshwater flows.

Water Resources Governance and Management

To achieve water security, Pakistan needs to adopt a coordinated and integrated approach to water governance and management. It includes building storage capacity, improving irrigation infrastructure, promoting water-saving technologies, treating municipal and industrial wastewater, conserving groundwater, and investing in climate-resilient infrastructure.

Pakistan needs to prioritize water for drinking, sanitation, and food production while balancing ecological flows to maintain freshwater habitats. Moreover, Pakistan needs to enhance its water governance framework by promoting institutional coordination, transparency, and accountability to manage water resources efficiently and sustainably.

Conclusion

Pakistan’s water resources will define the country’s future economic growth, food security, environmental sustainability, and public health. The Indus River has been Pakistan’s most critical natural resource, but it requires a more robust policy and institutional framework to meet Pakistan’s water needs while conserving the river for future generations.