The Evolution of the Transboundary Indus River System: From Conflict over Waters to the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960
Abstract
The Indus River system is one of the world’s largest transboundary river basins providing waters for irrigation and domestic use to almost 300 million people in China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. For thousands of years, the river basin sustained numerous civilizations and facilitated the thriving agricultural economy through an impressive network of waterways and irrigation systems. However, the irrigation system was at the center of disputes after the partition of British India in 1947. The division of British India had resulted in the distribution of the headworks in India on the river while the command areas were in Pakistan.
This paper provides an insight into the historical evolution of the Indus River system, starting from the Indus valley civilization to the negotiation of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) in 1960. The paper will also cover the geography of the basin, irrigation development before and after the independence, the dispute over waters after the partition, international diplomatic interventions, and negotiations for a permanent solution. This paper will conclude with a lesson on water governance from the Indus river dispute for future water governance frameworks.
Keywords: Indus River System, Transboundary Water Governance, Indus Waters Treaty, Partition India, World Bank, Punjab Irrigation, Water Diplomacy, International Rivers
1. Introduction
Freshwater is vital to the survival of humans, animals, plants, and even the sustainability of the planet. Thus, freshwater sources need to be managed carefully, especially if they are shared between countries. One of the prime examples of shared freshwater sources is the Indus River. Indus river has served as a habitat for thousands of people, provided agriculture with freshwaters, and facilitated transportation.
However, the distribution of waters from the river has also been a point of conflict between states. The Indus River system has become one of the largest transboundary waterways shared between Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and China. Pakistan has almost 60% of the total basin, and the country’s economy relies on agriculture, making it dependent on freshwater sources. Over 90% of Pakistan’s food production is dependent on the Indus River.
Before the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947, the entire Indus River basin was distributed as one united irrigation system under the control of the British government. However, the independence of Pakistan resulted in the Indus river being divided between two countries. The distribution of the river between Pakistan and India has caused the Indus river conflict, which has taken years to resolve. The conflict eventually resulted in the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960 with the intervention of the World Bank.
2. Geography of the Transboundary Indus River Basin
The Indus River originates from the Lake Manasarovar situated in the Tibetan Plateau at an elevation of over 5,000 km above sea level. The river flows northwest and then turns to the right towards the Gilgit-Baltistan region before flowing down south through Pakistan into the Arabian Sea (Salman & Uprety, 2002). The Indus River basin covers approximately 1.12 million km2 and consists of six (6) major rivers. These rivers are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.
River Approximate Length (km) Present Allocation under IWT
Indus 3,180 Pakistan
Jhelum 725 Pakistan
Chenab 960 Pakistan
Ravi 720 India
Beas 470 India
Sutlej 1,550 India
Besides the six major rivers mentioned above, the Indus river basin consists of tributaries and waterways formed from glaciers, snowfields, and streams. The basin provides water for hydro-power and supports livelihoods since the snow and glaciers in the basin supply glacial meltwater to the river annually.
3. Early Civilizations and Water Management
The Indus river basin has been home to some of the earliest and most advanced civilizations known today. Between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, the area was home to the Indus civilization, which has been described as one of the most developed ancient civilizations. Evidence of this can be seen in the remains of the ancient cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Ganweriwala, which are located in present-day Pakistan.
The Indus valley people were master builders who engineered some of the best drainage and well systems long before modern irrigation techniques became popular. These people utilized the abundance of water from the river to develop agriculture. The valley people were skilled farmers who grew various crops, some of which may have been used in construction.
The later Mauryan, Mughal, and Sikh Empires also used the river to develop impressive irrigation works. The most remarkable achievement of these empires was the construction of canals, tanks, and inundation reservoirs that facilitated large-scale farming.
4. British Irrigation Developments
The story of the Indus basin development changed significantly when Punjab was annexed by the British in 1849. The British government was impressed by the fertility of the lands in Punjab. Subsequently, the British embarked on a massive irrigation campaign to turn Punjab into a food-producing region.
Some of the most crucial canals that facilitated large-scale irrigation developments and food production in Punjab include:
• Upper Bari Doab Canal (1859)
• Sirhind Canal
• Lower Chenab Canal
• Lower Jhelum Canal
• Upper Chenab Canal
• Lower Bari Doab Canal
• Haveli Canal Irrigation Scheme
• Sutlej Valley Project
In addition to developing the above-listed canals, the British also laid the groundwork for the famous Punjab Canal colonies. These colonies are what present-day cities such as Faisalabad (formerly Lyallpur), Sahiwal (formerly Montgomery), and Sargodha were built on. The colonies were created when vast tracts of land in the canal-irrigated regions were purchased by the British government and turned into farmlands.
Punjab, therefore, became the breadbasket of British India when it is estimated that over one million acres of land were brought under cultivation to produce food for the residents of British India. It is worth noting that Punjab became the largest contiguous canal irrigation system in the world at the time.
5. Partition of British India (1947)
The partition of British India in 1947 resulted in the division of the irrigation canals and systems between India and Pakistan. Several headworks in Punjab such as the Madhopur headworks on the Ravi and Ferozepur on the Sutlej river were in India while the canals were in Pakistan (Michel, 1967). This meant that Pakistan did not have control over the headworks. Consequently, water from the three eastern rivers (the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej) was allocated to West Punjab.
At the time of the partition, Pakistan was a downstream riparian state for all of the river systems except the Indus river. In addition, India did not have any command areas for the eastern rivers at the time of independence. Thus, Pakistan ended up with most of the irrigation command areas while India retained control of the headworks. There were also no agreement terms regarding the distribution of waters between India and Pakistan, and the canal waters had suddenly acquired international significance.
6. The 1948 Water Dispute
Right after the Partition, tensions flared up between India and Pakistan over water as the first major crisis erupted on 1 April 1948, when India closed the Ferozepur Headworks that supplied waters to the Dipalpur canal and some parts of the Upper Bari Doab Canal in Pakistan. As a result of this sudden closure, several canal systems in Pakistan’s west Punjab were dry, and there were fears that the province’s agricultural crops would wither and die since the canal water was the primary source of moisture.
Even though this dispute was short-lived because the waters were re-opened shortly, it showed Pakistan’s vulnerability as a downstream riparian state and the need to have a permanent water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan.
7. The Inter-Dominion Agreement (1948)
The water dispute between India and Pakistan that erupted in 1948 was a severe test for the newly-independent Pakistan. However, the dispute was resolved when water negotiations between the two nations commenced. On 4 th May 1948, the Water Disputes Minister of India and Pakistan signed the Inter-dominion agreement for the temporary restoration of supplies.
The agreement allowed Pakistan to pay compensation to India for the use of waters until a more permanent and long-term allocation formula for the distribution of water could be developed. However, despite the relief that the agreement brought to Pakistan, it did not address the core concern about the loss of sovereignty over the irrigation systems in West Punjab.
8. International Arbitration (1948)
In 1951, American administrator David E Lilienthal proposed that the dispute over the waters of the Indus river be resolved by working out how to develop the entire basin jointly. This suggestion was well received, and thus the World Bank was invited to facilitate negotiations. Specifically, the World Bank’s President Eugene R Black extended an invitation for the World Bank to assist in resolving the dispute. This was accepted by both countries, and negotiations began. Thus, the negotiations continued for almost eight (8) years before the agreement to resolve the dispute was reached by the experts.
9. The Negotiations
Negotiations were carried out between engineers, economists, politicians, and diplomats with technical matters being addressed by engineers. Initially, the discussions focused on engineering matters and came up with the idea of developing an integrated plan for the management of the basin. However, the differences between Indians and Pakistanis on water use led to persistent disagreements and concerns about sovereignty over the river. However, these differences were laid down, and the negotiations shifted to addressing the division of the rivers.
According to the negotiations, the three eastern rivers, namely the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej, were to be allocated to India while the Indus, the Jhelum, and the Chenab rivers were to be given to Pakistan. However, it was also agreed that Pakistan would get the waters of the eastern rivers through the existing canals and that extensive replacement works would have to be done to enable the transfer of waters from the western rivers to Pakistan.
10. The Indus Basin Replacement Works
An international fund was mobilized to support Pakistan in completing the replacement works. Some of the major projects supported in Pakistan included:
Replacement Projects Implementation Period
Mangla Dam 1960-1970
Tarbela Dam Under planning
Rasul Barrage 1965
Marala-Ravi Link Canal 1968
Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal 1963
Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal 1965
Chashma-Jhelum Link Canal 1970
Taunsa-Panjnad Link Canal 1971
These projects ensured that the waters from the western rivers could be transferred to the eastern rivers in place of the waters from the eastern rivers that had been allocated to India.
11. Signing of the Indus Waters Treaty
The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) was signed on 19 th September 1960 in Karachi by:
• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India,
• President Mohammad Ayub Khan of Pakistan,
• and W. A. B. Iliff of the World Bank.
The Treaty took effect immediately and provided a permanent framework for water use. The Treaty also established the Permanent Indus Commission with representatives from India and Pakistan to facilitate technical discussions on matters concerning the waters of the Indus river.
12. Terms of the Treaty
Under the Treaty, the allocation of the water for the rivers was as follows:
East Rivers West Rivers
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
The Treaty stated that the water from the eastern rivers, namely the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej, would be allocated to India while the water from the western rivers (the Indus, the Jhelum, and the Chenab) would be given to Pakistan. The Treaty also stated that India would have the right to use some of the waters from the western rivers for domestic and other uses under specific stipulations. In addition, India could use the waters from the western rivers for hydropower purposes and water for irrigation under strict conditions.
Moreover, the Treaty required both countries to constitute a Commission on the Indus waters to deal with any dispute, matters of inspection, and to ensure that the terms of the Treaty were adhered to. The Treaty also established regulations relating to Neutral Expert procedures, Court of Arbitration, and rules relating to works to be undertaken on the river.
13. Significance of the Indus Waters Treaty
The Indus Waters Treaty is considered to be one of the most successful international water treaties of the twentieth century. First, the Treaty resolved one of the most complex water issues of the time. The Treaty also provided a water division framework for future use while also ensuring the longevity of the agreement through the establishment of the Permanent Indus Commission.
In addition, the successful resolution of this dispute provided a permanent settlement for water issues between India and Pakistan, and even after numerous conflicts between the two states, such as the 1965, 1971, and 1999 wars, the Treaty has been used as a framework for resolving water use issues with very few disputes.
14. Limitations and Criticisms of the Indus Waters Treaty
As much as the Indus Waters Treaty was considered to be an appropriate resolution to the 1948 dispute over the usage of the waters from the Indus River, it has faced criticism over some areas. First, there is an argument that the Treaty failed to consider the implications of the climate on the water availability. At the time, the climate was not considered to be an issue because the glacier meltwater and monsoon rains were predictable. However, there is an observation that the glacier meltwater has been inconsistent in recent years.
Second, even though the Treaty provided for the allocation of waters from the western rivers to Pakistan, it did not address the issue of the rising demand for water in both countries. Moreover, the Treaty does not address the environmental aspects, for example, flows to maintain ecological integrity, the importance of protecting the river’s deltas, wetlands, and even the sustainability of the ecosystem. Another limitation of the Treaty was that it did not take into account the importance of groundwater.
15. Lessons on Water Governance from the Indus Waters Treaty
One of the major water governance lessons that can be drawn from the conflict over the Indus river waters and its resolution is that technical issues can be resolved through the development of technical institutions. Another lesson is that effective management of transboundary freshwater resources requires strong and lasting institutional frameworks.
A third lesson that can be drawn from the Indus Waters dispute is that issues regarding water between countries can be resolved through international arbitration. The resolution of the dispute serves as an example of how disputes can be resolved successfully when negotiations take place between engineers. A fourth lesson is that the resolution of transboundary water issues requires engineering and political approaches.
16. Conclusion
The evolution of management and use of the transboundary Indus river has been influenced by historical, geographical, and political factors. Before 1947, the Indus river was used and managed by the British government through an extensive irrigation system before it was divided between India and Pakistan after the independence of these countries. This division of the river resulted in a dispute over the waters of the Indus river that eventually led to the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960. The IWT resolved the conflict over the use of the Indus river by dividing the rivers between India and Pakistan.
The resolution of this dispute demonstrated that technical aspects of water issues can be resolved through the formation of technical councils. It also shows that political issues can only be resolved effectively when addressed by the appropriate political authority. Besides, the resolution of this dispute illustrates that international negotiations can be effective when facilitated by a neutral international agent. In addition to these lessons, the treaty shows the importance of incorporating climate and environmental considerations when dealing with transboundary river water issues.
References
Biswas, A. K. (1992). Indus Water Treaty: The Negotiating Process. Water International.
Gulhati, N. D. (1973). Indus Waters Treaty: An Exercise in International Mediation . Allied Publishers.
Michel, A. A. (1967). The Indus Rivers: A Study of the Effects of Partition. Yale University Press.
Salman, S. M. A., & Uprety, K. (2002). Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia’s International Rivers. World Bank.
Wolf, A. T. (1998). Conflict and Cooperation Along International Waterways. Water policy.
World Bank. (1960). Indus Waters Treaty 1960.
Government of Pakistan. Indus Waters Treaty (1960).
Government of India. Indus Waters Treaty (1960).
UN Water. Transboundary Waters and International Water Law.
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